The book Criminological Theory, written by J. Robert Lilly, Francis T. Cullen and Richard A. Ball, looks at various different aspects of crime, including crime in American society, the links between crime and delinquency, gender and criminology and the development of criminals throughout their life course.
Criminological Theory looks at how crime is becoming more and more common in American society, and how murder reports are becoming so common that people are now giving them about the same amount of attention they give to sports results. The crime rates in America are decreasing, but there are still a very high number of American people who are robbed, assaulted and raped every year. It discusses the links between crime and delinquency, and how this tends to be passed down through generations. Sociologist Albert K. Cohen believed that the reasons for crime in groups of disadvantaged youths was due to problems in schools (page 61). Due to the fact that these youths come from disadvantaged backgrounds, they do not have the same socialisation skills as those from upper class families, therefore they feel as though they cannot compete with the more affluent children at school. This leads to them rebelling against principles that people from a higher social class respect (for example responsibility, ambition, politeness and anger control) and resorting to behaviour which goes against these principles such as violence, vandalism, graffiti and truancy. By doing this it makes them feel like they have gained a social status amongst their peers.
These youths do not have a lot of opportunity to be successful in their lives, which then also leads them to crime such as this. However, sociologists Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin came to the conclusion, after looking at writing by the Chicago theorists, that to be in a gang, or become a criminal, you need contacts (page 63). Although these youths may not have opportunities in school or on the career path, they have the contacts to achieve higher social status within it by joining a gang or becoming a thief. As with anything, the need to know people is great when it comes to moving up the ladder, whether it be in social status or in a career. In design, to start a practise, or become better known, it is useful to know the people who can help make this happen. The youths also show a degree of intelligence by taking these opportunities available to them. Although these may not be the kind of opportunities which are put across to them as ’good’ in school, they have recognised that they will get somewhere, even if it is only in their social circle, by taking these opportunities. This links to design and how designers must take advantage of the opportunities they are given, even if it means they will only get further in their field and not overall, as it is important to think that small changes will have a greater effect in the bigger picture.
Criminological Theory also discusses James Q. Wilson and George Kelling’s ‘Broken Windows Theory’, which is looked into in Malcolm Gladwell’s The Tipping Point (page 141). This theory suggests that if a window is broken in a neighbourhood (a ‘broken rule’) and that window is then promptly fixed, it sends a message to criminals that the area is well looked after and cared for. However, if the window is then left broken, the message is put across that it is ok to do this, therefore the vandalism will continue and the rules will continue to be broken (page 258). In design, this theory also works, although in a slightly different way. If one designer stretches his/her boundaries, it will then start a trend in the design world, whether it be in fashion, interiors or graphics. If no one was to start designing out with the lines, design would not move forward, and new fashions would not arise. Therefore, although in a different context, the broken windows theory is important to designers and the design community.
David Funder’s article Towards a resolution of the personality triad: persons, situations and behaviour from the Journal of Research in Personality 40 looks at the connection between personality and situation, which links to the part in The Tipping Point about personality changing in different situations. It discusses the ‘personality triad’ (introduction), which involves persons, situations and behaviour, and not only how the person and the situation conclude the behaviour of the person, but how any two also decide on the third.
The journal also discusses a study by the author David Funder and Randy Colvin Explorations in Behavioural Consistency: Properties of persons, situations and behaviours (1991). In this study two undergraduates from the opposite sex were placed in a room together and filmed. The conclusion of this was that levels of anxiety and insecurity were high, and many of the people kept the other at a distance, sometimes not showing much interest in them. However, when the experiment was done for a second time, using the same group of people paired up differently - again with a member of the opposite sex - the levels of insecurity and tension were much lower, and the undergraduates were more likely to behave more friendly towards his/her partner, showing signs of being comfortable in the surroundings and showing more expression than the first time. This study is an excellent example of how personality can change in different situations, as although in the second experiment the people had still never met the person with whom they were partnered with, the small fact that they had been in the situation before was enough to relax them and make them feel more comfortable. It also demonstrates the importance of situation and how very minor changes in situation can create major changes in behaviour.
Funder also looks at the links between behavioural consistency and situational similarity, discussing how when a familiar situation arises, the person is likely to fall into the same behavioural pattern which they adopted previously in a similar situation.
In design, it is important for personality to change in different situations, as different projects and clients require different strengths and skills, as well as sometimes a change in the way things are done. The links between behavioural consistency and situational similarity are also important in the design world when taking on projects or clients similar to those done or worked with before.
Having looked at Criminological Theory and Towards a resolution of the personality triad: persons, situations and behaviour in detail has emphasised the importance of some of the points looked at in Gladwell’s The Tipping Point and how they relate to matters in the design world. The ‘Broken Windows Theory’ in particular, which is also discussed in B.J. Doran’s article Investigating the Spatiotemporal links between disorder, crime and the fear of crime (2005) which I mentioned in an earlier assignment, is important when creating new trends in the design world and creating new boundaries for designers. Breaking rules and stretching boundaries is something which I feel needs to be done in the world of design.
Funder’s article advances Criminological Theory by going into detail about personality changes, which are discussed in the book in relation to children and the behavioural changes they go through when situations or their environment changes (page 319) which then can resort in antisocial behaviour either then or in later life. The journal article goes into depth about how personality changes in smaller situations, such as day to day changes, and not just in the bigger picture and over the life course, which is more what Criminological Theory looks at.
To research these topics further, I would read many of Funder’s other articles on studies he, along with others, has taken part in to further investigate personality. One of these is an article by Funder and Mike Furr; Situational Similarity and Behavioural Consistency: Subjective, objective, variable-centred and person-centred approaches from the Journal of Research in Personality 38 (2004). The two studies mentioned in this article stem from the experiments discussed in Funder’s journal article, and would create a better insight into the investigation of personality changes. Another article is Personality, from the Annual Review of Psychology 52 (2001), also by Funder, which looks into how personality is apparent in behaviour and has a major effect on it. Something else which I could do would be interviewing sociologist and psychologists, or looking into their works, and investigating the experiments they have done to come to conclusions about personality, its effect, changes in it, and how important it is. I could also conduct research into how designers use personality in their work, and aim to discover how important it is for a designer to have a certain type of personality, whether it be in a managerial situation or in a client-based situation. I would also aim to read in further detail and research one of the journals I mentioned in a previous assignment about stress and the effects of a job with a high level of responsibility on stress levels (The sociological study of stress. Journal of Health and Social Behaviour) as I feel that this is an important issue in the research into personality changes and how stress levels - particularly if in relation to a person’s job - can affect one’s personality, as a job in the design industry can be very stressful.
Bibliography
Ball, R.A. Cullen, F.T. & Lilly, R.J. (2007). Criminological Theory: Context and Consequences, 4th Edition. London: Sage Publications Ltd.
Doran, B.J. (2005) Investigating the Spatiotemporal Links between disorder, crime and the fear of crime. Professional Geographer 57 (1): 1-12 Feb 2005.
Funder, D.C. (2006) Towards a resolution of the personality triad: Persons, situations and behaviours. Journal of research in personality 40 (1): 21-34 Feb 2006.
Funder, D.C. & Ozer, D.J. (1983) Behaviour as a function of the situation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Vol 44(1), Jan 1983, 107-112.
Funder, D.C. & Colvin, C.R. (1991) Explorations in behavioural consistency: Properties of persons, situations, and behaviours. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Vol 60(5), May 1991, 773-794.
Gladwell, Malcolm (2000). The Tipping Point. United Kingdom: Little Brown Book Group
Pearlin, L.I. (1989). The sociological study of stress. Journal of Health and Social Behaviour, Vol 30, No 3, pp 241-256.
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